As used herein, the term “blood products” includes whole blood and cellular components derived from blood, including erythrocytes (red blood cells) and platelets.
There are more than thirty blood group (or type) systems, one of the most important of which is the ABO system. This system is based on the presence or absence of antigens A and/or B. These antigens are found on the surface of erythrocytes and platelets as well as on the surface of endothelial and most epithelial cells. The major blood product used for transfusion is erythrocytes, which are red blood cells containing hemoglobin, the principal function of which is the transport of oxygen. Blood of group A contains antigen A on its erythrocytes. Similarly, blood of group B contains antigen B on its erythrocytes. Blood of group AB contains both antigens, and blood of group O contains neither antigen.
The blood group structures are glycoproteins or glycolipids and considerable work has been done to identify the specific structures making up the A and B determinants or antigens. The ABH blood group specificity is determined by the nature and linkage of monosaccharides at the ends of the carbohydrate chains. The carbohydrate chains are attached to a peptide (glycoprotein) or lipid (glycosphingolipid) backbone, which are attached to the cell membrane of the cells. The immunodominant monosaccharide determining type A specificity is a terminal α1-3 linked N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), while the corresponding monosaccharide of B type specificity is an α1-3 linked galactose (Gal). Type O cells lack either of these monosaccharides at the termini of oligosaccharide chains, which instead are terminated with α1-2 linked fucose (Fuc) residues.
A great diversity of blood group ABH carbohydrate structures are found due to structural variations in the oligosaccharide chains that carry ABH immunodominant saccharides. Table 1 lists structures reported in man and those that have been found on human red cells or in blood extracts. For a review, see, Clausen & Hakomori, Vox Sang 56(1): 1-20, 1989). Red cells contain ABH antigens on N-linked glycoproteins and glycosphingolipids, while it is generally believed that O-linked glycans on erythrocytes glycoproteins, mainly glycophorins, are terminated by sialic acid and not with ABH antigens. Type I chain glycosphingolipids are not endogenous products of red cells, but rather adsorbed from plasma.
TABLE IHisto-Blood Group ABH Immunoreactive Determinants of Human Cells1Type ofFound onNameHapten StructureGlycoconjugateRBCNoA type 1, ALedGalNAcα1-3Galβ1-3GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycol 1            2N-linked        Fucα1O-linked A type 1, ALebGalNAcα1-3Galβ1-3GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid 2            2         4N-linked        Fucα1     Fucα1O-linked A type 2, AGalNAcα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid 3            2N-linkedN-linked        Fucα1O-linked A type 2, ALeyGalNAcα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid? 4            2         3N-linked        Fucα1     Fucα1O-linked A type 3,GalNAcα1-3Galβ1-3GalNAcα1-O-Ser/ThrO-linked 5O-linked            2        Fucα1 A type 3,GalNAcα1-3Galβ1-3GalNAcα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid 6Repetitive            2                 2        Fucα1             Fucα1 A type 4, GloboGalNAcα1-3Galβ1-3GalNAcβ1-3Galα1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid? 7            2        Fucα1 A type 4,GalNAcα1-3Galβ1-3GalNAcβ1-3Galβ1-RGlycolipid8Ganglio            2        Fucα1 B type 1, BLedGalα1-3Galβ1-3GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid 9         2N-linked     Fucα1O-linked B type 1, BLebGalα1-3Galβ1-3GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid10         2         4N-linked     Fucα1     Fucα1O-linked B type 2, BGalα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid11         2N-linkedN-linked     Fucα1O-linked B type 2, BLeyGalα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid?12         2         3N-linked     Fucα1     Fucα1O-linked B type 3,Galα1-3Galβ1-3GalNAcα1-O-Ser/ThrO-linked13O-linked         2     Fucα1 B type 4, GloboGalα1-3Galβ1-3GalNAcβ1-3Galα1-RGlycolipid?Glycolipid?14         2     Fucα1 B type 4,Galα1-3Galβ1-3GalNAcβ1-3Galβ1-RGlycolipid?15Ganglio         2     Fucα1 H type 1, Led   Galβ1-3GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid16    2N-linkedFucα1O-linked H type 1, Leb   Galβ1-3GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid17    2         4N-linkedFucα1     Fucα1O-linked H type 2, H   Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid18    2N-linkedN-linkedFucα1O-linked H type 2, Ley   Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid?19    2         3N-linkedFucα1     Fucα1O-linked H type 3,   Galβ1-3GalNAcα1-O-Ser/ThrO-linked20O-linked    2Fucα1 H type 3, H-A   Galβ1-3GalNAcα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid21    2                 2(A RBC)Fucα1             Fucα1 H type 4, Globo   Galβ1-3GalNAcβ1-3Galα1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid22    2Fucα1 H type 4,   Galβ1-3GalNAcβ1-3Galβ1-RGlycolipid23Ganglio    2Fucα1 Thomsen-Friedenrich   Galβ1-3GalNAcα1-O-Ser/ThrO-linkedO-linked24Tf, T(+SA) Gal-A,   Galβ1-3GalNAcα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAcβ1-RGlycolipidGlycolipid25T cross-react.                       2(A RBC)                   Fucα1 Tn, A          GalNAcα1-O-Ser/ThrO-linkedO-linked26cross-react.(+SA)1Adapted from Clausen Hakomori, Vox Sang 56(1): 1-20, 1989.Designations: “?” indicates potential glycolipid structures which have not been reported to date.
Blood group A and B exist in several subtypes. Blood group A subtypes are the most frequent, and there are three recognized major sub-types of blood type A. These sub-types are known as A1, A intermediate (Aint) and A2. There are both quantitative and qualitative differences that distinguish these three sub-types. Quantitatively, A1 erythrocytes have more antigenic A sites, i.e., terminal N-acetylgalactosamine residues, than Aint erythrocytes which in turn have more antigenic A sites than A2 erythrocytes. Qualitatively, A1 erythrocytes have a dual repeated A structure on a subset of glycosphingolipids, while A2 cells have an H structure on an internal A structure on a similar subset of glycolipids (Clausen et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82(4): 1199-203, 1985. Clausen et al., J. Biol. Chem. 261(3): 1380-7, 1986). These differences between A and weak A subtypes are thought to relate to differences in the kinetic properties of blood group A isoenzyme variants responsible for the formation of A antigens (Clausen et al., J. Biol. Chem. 261(3): 1388-92, 1986). The differences of group B subtypes are believed to be solely of quantitative nature.
Blood of group A contains antibodies to antigen B. Conversely, blood of group B contains antibodies to antigen A. Blood of group AB has neither antibody, and blood group O has both. Antibodies to these and other carbohydrate defined blood group antigens are believed to be elicited by continuous exposure to microbial organism carrying related carbohydrate structures. An individual whose blood contains either (or both) of the anti-A or anti-B antibodies cannot receive a transfusion of blood containing the corresponding incompatible antigen(s). If an individual receives a transfusion of blood of an incompatible group, the blood transfusion recipient's antibodies coat the red blood cells of the transfused incompatible group and cause the transfused red blood cells to agglutinate, or stick together. Transfusion reactions and/or hemolysis (the destruction of red blood cells) may result therefrom.
In order to avoid severe transfusion reactions due to the presence of antibodies to the A and B blood group antigens the blood group of the donor and the recipient are matched before blood transfusions by typing methods. For example, a blood type A recipient can be safely transfused with type A blood, which contains compatible antigens, but not type B blood, which would trigger an adverse immune response in the recipient. Because type O blood contains no A or B antigens, it can be transfused into any recipient with any blood type, i.e., recipients with blood types A, B, AB or O. Thus, type O blood is considered “universal”, and may be used for all transfusions. Hence, it is desirable for blood banks to maintain large quantities of type O blood. However, there is a paucity of blood type O donors. Therefore, it is desirable and useful to remove the immunodominant A and B antigens on types A, B and AB blood in order to maintain large quantities of universal blood products.
In an attempt to increase the supply of type O blood, methods have been developed for converting type A, B and AB blood to type O blood. Although, enzymatic conversion of both group B and group A red cells have been achieved in the past, these older processes have several disadvantages, particularly that they require excessive quantities of enzyme, and the specificities of many glycan modifying enzymes are not restricted to cleavage of only the blood group A or B antigens.
As will be explained below, the present invention provides for a family of polypeptides having highly refined substrate specificities, and better kinetic properties, that can be used to generate tissues and blood products lacking immunodominant antigens, thereby providing an efficient and cost-effective commercial process to supply, e.g. universal (non-immunogenic) blood cells for transplant, and even animal tissues for xenotransplantation into humans.
Conversion of Blood Group B Cells:
Enzymatic conversion of type B blood using purified or recombinant Coffee bean (Coffea canephora) α-galactosidase has been achieved using 100-200 U/ml (U.S. Pat. No. 4,427,777; Zhu et al., Arch Biochem Biophys 1996; 327(2): 324-9; Kruskall et al., Transfusion 2000; 40(11): 1290-8). The specific activity of Coffee bean α-galactosidase was reported to be 32 U/mg using p-nitrophenyl α-D-Gal with one unit (U) defined as one μmole substrate hydrolyzed per minute (Zhu et al., Arch Biochem Biophys 1996; 327(2): 324-9). Enzymatic conversions were done at pH 5.5 with approximately 6 mg/ml enzyme at 80-90% hematocrit, and the resulting converted O cells functioned normally in transfusion experiments and no significant adverse clinical parameters were observed (Kruskall et al., Transfusion 2000; 40(11): 1290-8). This data along with earlier publications, clearly demonstrate that enzymatic conversion of red blood cells is feasible and that such enzyme group B converted O (B-ECO) cells can function as well as matched type untreated cells in transfusion medicine. Nevertheless, the quantities of enzymes required for seroconversion in these studies, even with recombinant production of the enzyme, renders this method for generating ECO cells impractical mainly for economical reasons.
Claims of protocols for improved conversion of B cells using recombinant Glycine max α-galactosidase with a specific activity of approximately 200 U/mg have been reported using 5-10 units of enzyme/ml blood (with 16% hematocrit) (see, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,606,042; 5,633,130; 5,731,426; 6,184,017). The Glycine max α-galactosidase was thus used at 25-50 μg/ml, which represents a significant reduction in enzyme protein quantities required (50-200 fold) (Davis et al., Biochemistry and Molecular Biology International, 39(3): 471-485, 1996). This reduction is partly due to the higher specific activity of the Glycine max α-galactosidase (approximately 6 fold) as well as different methods used for conversion and evaluation. The 200 U/ml enzyme used in the study of Kruskall et al., (Transfusion, 40(11): 1290-8, 2000) was worked out for full unit (approximately 220 ml packed cells) conversions at 80-90% hematocrits and thoroughly analyzed by standard blood bank typing as well as by more sensitive cross-match analysis. Furthermore, the efficiency of conversion was evaluated by analysis of survival and induced immunity in patients receiving multiple transfusions of converted cells. The enzymatic conversions were done in test tubes in ml scale at 16% hematocrit, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,606,042 (and 5,633,130; 5,731,426; 6,184,017) with Glycine max α-galactosidase, and the conversion efficiency not evaluated by cross-match analysis. Conversion of cells at 16% hematocrit required 10 U/ml, while conversions at 8% required 5 U/ml, indicating that converting at increased hematocrit requires more enzyme although higher cell concentrations were not tested. Thus, part of the reduction in enzyme protein quantities required compared to protocols reported by Kruskall et al., (Transfusion 2000; 40(11): 1290-8), is related to the concentration (hematocrit) of cells used in conversion, and this may represent more than 5-10 fold, although direct comparison is not possible without further experimentation. The U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,606,042 (and 5,633,130; 5,731,426; 6,184,017) further provides improvements in the conversion buffer using Na citrate and glycine at less acidic pH (preferably pH 5.8) and including additional protein in the form of BSA (bovine serum albumin) for stabilization. Interestingly, the conversion buffer developed for the Glycine max α-galactosidase was found not to be applicable to Coffee bean α-galactosidase. Although, some improvement in the conversion of B cells may be provided by U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,606,042 (and 5,633,130; 5,731,426; 6,184,017), it is clear that at least more than 0.5 mg of enzyme is required per ml packed type B red cells using the disclosed protocol. It is likely that considerable more enzyme than this is required to obtain cells fully converted to O cells by the most sensitive typing procedures used in standard blood bank typing protocols. Furthermore, the protocol requires introduction of additional extraneous protein (BSA or human serum albumin) as well as exposing blood products to a significant acidic pH.
Bakunina et al. (Bakunina et al. Biochemistry (Moscow) 1998, p 1420) has claimed the identification and isolation of a novel α-galactosidase from the marine bacterium Pseudoalteromonas spp. (KMM 701). The isolated enzyme preparation was purified to a specific activity of 9.8 U/mg using the substrate pNP-Gal and had an apparent molecular weight by gel filtration of 195 kD. The enzyme preparation efficiently cleaved the monosaccharide substrate pNP-Gal with an apparent Km for pNP-Gal of 0.29 mM as well as several unbranched disaccharides with terminal α-galactose including melibiose and Galα1-3Gal, and hence does not show high specificity for blood group B. This enzyme will therefore cleave unbranched oligosaccharides with terminal α-Gal such as the linear B structure as well as the P1 antigen. The enzyme was reported to have a neutral pH optimum (i.e., a pH optimum ranging from about 6.5 to about 7.7) and to convert blood group B cells with 24 h incubation reaction time to cells typing as group O cells. However, details of the conversion procedure and enzyme consumption were not described, and the efficiency of conversion evaluated by standard typing procedures with licensed typing reagents remains to be tested. Purification to homogeneity, cloning and recombinant expression of the enzyme will likely be required to provide the quantities and quality of enzyme protein required for enzymatic conversion of red cells.
We have disclosed (U.S. Ser. No. 10/251,271) the identification and partial characterization of a novel α-galactosidase activity with high specific activity and highly restricted substrate specificity for the blood group B antigen. The enzyme activity was identified by screening more than 2,400 bacterial and fungal isolates and found in only a few bacteria. The enzyme was partly purified from cell lysates of Streptomyces griseoplanus strain #2357 (ATCC deposit No. PTA-4077) and partial amino acid sequence information was obtained.
It is evident from the above that further improvements in conversion of B cells is required in order to make this a practical and commercially applicable technology. Necessary improvements include obtaining more efficient and specific α-galactosidase enzymes, which allow conversion to take place preferable at neutral pH and without extraneous protein added.
Assays to Determine αGal Cleaving Glycosidase Activities:
Past methods for searching, identification and characterization of exo-glycosidases have generally relied on the use of simple monosaccharide derivatives as substrates to identify saccharide and potential linkage specificity. Derivatized monosaccharide, or rarely oligosaccharide, substrates include without limitation p-nitrophenyl (pNP), benzyl (Bz), 4-methyl-umbrelliferyl (Umb), and 7-amino-4-methyl-coumarin (AMC). The use of such substrates provides easy, fast, and inexpensive tools to identify glycosidase activities, and makes large scale screening of diverse sources of enzymes practically applicable. However, the kinetic properties and fine substrate specificities of glycosidase enzymes may not necessarily be reflected in assays with such simple structures. It is also possible that novel enzymes with high degree of specificity and/or selective efficiency for complex oligosaccharide and unique glycoconjugate structures exists, but that these may have been overlooked and remain unrecognized due to methods of analysis. Thus, in order to identify and select the optimal exo-glycosidase for a particular complex oligosaccharide or glycoconjugate structure it is preferable to use such complex structures in assays used for screening sources of enzymes. Furthermore, preferred assays used for screening include selection for preferable kinetic properties such as pH requirement and performance on substrates, e.g., attached to the membrane of cells.
In prior studies, all α-galactosidases (EC 3.2.1.22) and α-N-acetylgalactosaminidases (EC 3.2.1.49) used for removing the B and A antigens of blood cells had been identified and characterized using primarily p-nitrophenyl monosaccharide derivatives. Interestingly, most of these α-galactosidase and α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase enzymes used in past studies are evolutionary homologs as evidenced by significant DNA and amino acid sequence similarities. Thus, the human α-galactosidase and α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase are close homologs (Wang et al., J Biol Chem, 265: 21859-66, 1990), and other enzymes previously used in blood cell conversion including the chicken liver α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase, fungal acremonium α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase, and bacterial α-galactosidases all exhibit significant sequence similarities. Sequence analysis of all known O-glycoside hydrolases have been grouped in 85 distinct families based on sequence analysis, and the above mentioned α-galactosidases and α-N-acetylgalactosaminidases are grouped in family 27 (Carbohydrate-Active enZYmes Database, CAZY). These enzymes are characterized by having a retaining mechanism of catalysis and use aspartic acid as the catalytic nucleophile (Henrissat, Biochem Soc Trans, 26(2): 153-6, 1998; Rye & Withers, Curr Opin Chem Biol, 4(5): 573-80, 2000). The primary structure of a bacterial α-N-acetylgalactosaminidase from Clostridium perfringens was reported to be dissimilar and non-homologous to eukaryote α-N-acetylgalactosaminidases (Calcutt et al. FEMS Micro Lett 214:77-80, 2002), and is grouped in a distantly related glycosidase family 36, which also contains α-galactosidases and α-N-acetylgalactosaminidases (Carbohydrate-Active enZYmes Database, CAZY). The catalytic mechanism of this group of enzymes is predicted to be similar to that of enzymes from family 27 because some sequence similarity exists between enzymes of the two families.